There can be uncontrolled growth of microorganisms (such as bacteria or fungi) in aqueous environments. The growth of microorganisms can result in, for example, microbial contamination of an aqueous medium, the formation of a biofilm on a surface exposed to an aqueous medium, or both. A biofilm can serve as a reservoir of microorganisms that can contaminate a sterile or sterilized aqueous environment in contact with it. Many surfaces can be susceptible to biofilm formation, including those in industrial equipment (such as water treatment equipment and pulp- and paper-making equipment), and in medical equipment and devices (such as catheters and electrodes). On, for example, surfaces of drinking water treatment facilities and pulp- and paper-making facilities, the growth of microorganisms can lead to contamination and to surface biofilm growth that can require cleaning and repairs. On, for example, surfaces of medical devices, such as surfaces of catheters or electrodes, the formation and growth of a biofilm can lead to a need to remove or replace the medical device.
Approaches to controlling or eliminating the growth of microorganisms in an aqueous environment, the formation of a biofilm on a surface exposed to an aqueous environment, or both, have included sterilization of the aqueous environment or the use of surfaces that inhibit the adhesion of microorganisms and biofilms.